3.2 Open and Closed Loop Congestion Control:
Open-loop congestion control is a mechanism for controlling congestion in a network by adjusting the input load to the network based on a priori knowledge of the network's capacity. Closed-loop congestion control is a mechanism that monitors network congestion levels in real-time and adjusts the input load to the network accordingly. In open-loop congestion control, the input load to the network is adjusted based on a predetermined schedule, without any feedback from the network. In closed-loop congestion control, the input load to the network is adjusted based on feedback from the network, such as the number of packets dropped or the round-trip time of packets.
3.3 IPv4 Addressing:
IPv4 addressing is a system for identifying and locating devices on a network using unique IP addresses. IPv4 addresses are 32 bits in length and are typically represented in dotted-decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.0.1). The IPv4 address space is divided into classes (A, B, C, D, and E), each of which has a different range of IP addresses. Classful addressing is an addressing scheme in which the IP address is divided into two parts: the network ID and the host ID. Subnetting is a technique used to divide a network into smaller subnetworks, each with its own network ID. Supernetting is a technique used to combine multiple networks into a single larger network with a common network ID. Classless addressing is an addressing scheme that allows for a more flexible allocation of IP addresses and does not rely on predefined address classes. Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technique used to allow devices on a private network to communicate with devices on a public network using a single public IP address.
3.4 Forwarding of IP Packets:
IP packets can be forwarded based on the destination address or based on a label, such as a virtual circuit identifier. In destination-based forwarding, the router looks up the destination address in its routing table and forwards the packet to the appropriate next hop. In label-based forwarding, the router looks up the label in its forwarding table and forwards the packet to the appropriate outgoing interface.
3.5 Network Layer Protocols:
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the primary network layer protocol used in the Internet. IPv4 is the most widely used version of IP and uses a 32-bit address space. The IPv4 datagram format includes fields for the header length, type of service, total length, identification, flags, fragment offset, time to live, protocol, header checksum, source address, and destination address. Fragmentation is a process used to break up large IP packets into smaller fragments that can be transmitted over a network. Options are additional fields that can be included in the IP header for special purposes, such as specifying the maximum segment size or requesting a time stamp.
3.6 Mobile IP:
Mobile IP is a protocol for allowing devices to maintain their IP address when moving between networks. Mobile IP uses a system of agents, including a home agent and a foreign agent, to manage the movement of the device and ensure that its IP address remains valid. Mobile IP is typically divided into three phases: registration, tunneling, and forwarding.
3.7 Next Generation IP:
IPv6 is the next generation of IP and uses a 128-bit address space. IPv6 addresses are typically represented in hexadecimal notation (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). IPv6 includes several different address types, including unicast, multicast, and anycast. The IPv6 protocol includes a new packet format that includes an extension header, which allows for additional options to be included in the packet header. The main differences between.
Routing refers to the process of selecting the best path or route for transmitting data between two or more network nodes. The routing process involves finding the most efficient path, based on various criteria such as shortest distance, fastest speed, or fewest hops.
There are various routing algorithms that can be used to determine the best path for data transmission. Here are three common routing algorithms:
1. Distance Vector Routing: This algorithm is also known as the Bellman-Ford algorithm. In this algorithm, each node maintains a table that contains the distance to all the other nodes in the network. The node updates its table by exchanging information with its directly connected neighbors. The updates continue until all nodes have converged to the same set of routing tables. Distance vector routing is a simple algorithm, but it can be slow to converge and may result in routing loops.
2. Link State Routing: This algorithm is also known as the Dijkstra algorithm. In link-state routing, each node maintains a map of the entire network, including all nodes and links. Each node floods the network with information about its connections, and all other nodes use this information to build a complete map of the network. The nodes then use Dijkstra's algorithm to calculate the shortest path to each destination. Link-state routing is more complex than distance vector routing but is generally more efficient and stable.
3. Path Vector Routing: This algorithm is a hybrid of distance vector and link-state routing. Each node maintains a table that contains not only the distance to other nodes but also the path to reach those nodes. Path vector routing is commonly used in large networks, such as the internet, and is used by the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) to route traffic between different autonomous systems (ASes).
0 Comments